Connecting cultures

Culture is as old as organised life of mankind on earth. It began when homo sapiens started living in wide-ranging geographic areas, following social norms and pursuing economic activities with shared responsibilities and obligations as decided by their community. Differences of habitation in terms of time and space required adoption of different means for survival out of which emerged distinct patterns of` living. Culture as the manifestation of the way of life of people in different regions evolved with the development of concerned communities. Ingenuity, innovation and creativity of people further differentiated one culture from another. As human struggle transcended the primordial need for survival, endeavour was made at attaining higher needs, taking culture to new heights. In this process of elevating way of life qualitatively some people blessed by nature, a peaceful environment and early start of organised living fared better than others.

In spite of these differences among cultures certain common traits were shared by them based on basic human needs and the instinctive urge for creative expressions. In course of time various contacts among people living in different regions of the world led to a process of cultural disseminations; in some places slowly, in others rapidly. These interactions of cultures through various means of contact were perceived to have both benefits and costs, the degree of which depended on how fast dissemination took place and which party in the interaction looked at it critically. Some of these effects were obvious, some not so tangible and straightforward. But changes brought about by cultural contacts, irrespective of their impacts, were perceptible enough to be scrutinised by analytical minds. Cultural contacts as a spontaneous process or through deliberate measures have, therefore, been accompanied by arguments for and against. Adapting aspects of an alien culture at one's free will has been regarded as natural and as such acceptable but it is the opposite of this process, incorporation into or subordination under a dominant culture that has been the rule and common experience of the culturally weaker people, weakness being defined by lack of or inadequate political and economic power.

Kublai Khan

The absence of free choice in adapting an external culture or some aspect of it to one's own and almost compulsory integration into a dominant culture is seen as adding salt to the injury of being politically dominated and economically exploited. To the critics of colonialism and imperialism cultural incorporation or subordination was nothing but the adjunct of political domination by colonial powers. It, however, took a long time after the first contacts among cultures of people of different countries to reach the stage where political and economic power behind culture became crucial and relevant. In the long history of cultural contacts among peoples the role played by colonial and imperial powers is only an episode, though a very important one with long term consequences. In discussing the chequered account of connecting cultures this important chapter should get due attention but not at the cost of other and equally relevant issues.

What has to be kept in the forefront of discussion is that connecting cultures across time and space has been a process that has enriched human civilization. No doubt in this complex enterprise there have been costs and benefits that have been borne and enjoyed disproportionately by people in different countries. However, in an ever changing world there is scope and opportunity of restoring a reasonable balance in this respect. This can be discussed in the course of a brief explanation about what connecting cultures have implied, how it took place and what have been its consequences.

Connecting cultures: Then and now

Ibne Batuta

Christopher Columbus

Travel/exploration: Cultural contacts among peoples have taken place from time immemorial. The earliest form it took was through travels by persons with a curious bent of mind and adventurous spirit. Very few of these travelers recorded their experience and the earliest travel account available in edited form dates back to 30-5 B.C. written by Meghasthenes. The desire to travel out of curiosity and for the sake of adventure was overtaken by various other motives that had varying consequences for cultural interaction. Fa-hsien and Heu-enshan, two Chinese pilgrims visited India in the sixth and seventh centuries respectively in search of sacred religious scriptures. Though interested in religion both wrote on the social and political conditions that prevailed at those times. Meant for their peers and superiors, their accounts have proved to be valuable sources of writing Indian history. Marco Polo had visited China in 1242 as a traveller, meeting the Mongol king of China, Kublai Khan. Seeing the possibility of converting the Mongol king to Christianity and thereby strengthening the Christian army in the Crusade Pope Gregory sent him as his emissary to the court of Kublai Khan.

Marco Polo

The religious motive was not fulfilled but Marco Polo wrote detailed account of his travel experiences along the Silk Route and about his stay in the court of the great Khan, making it one of the most interesting travel books connecting cultures. Another pilgrim, Ibne Batuta left his home in Tangier, Morocco in 1325, also with religious aspirations. But in addition to performing Hajj and visiting centers of Islamic learning in several Muslim countries of Asia Minor and Central Asia he also traveled to Constantinople, India, Ceylon and China, spending 29 years away from his country. He is considered to be the most extensively travelled person in the Middle Ages and his travel account gives vivid description of the people and life in other countries. Ibne Batuta combined pursuit of religion with the curiosity of learning about other cultures. Christopher Columbus, Harnan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro of Spain set sails with the support of the Spanish King and Queen in 1492 and 1530 respectively to explore countries rich in wealth. Instead of china and the Spice Islands Columbus ended up in the West Indies while Cortes and Pizarro arrived in Central America. All of them subjected local people to extreme brutalities for exploitation of precious metals. While Columbus made settlements in Haiti and Cuba with Spaniards brought from home, Cortes and Pizarro conquered the Inca empire of Peru and the Aztech empire of Mexico using chicanery and brutal force.

The voyages and later travels in Central America of these Spanish explorers constitute the worst cases of connecting cultures and is a blot on western civilization. Francis Bernier, a French doctor who travelled widely in India in the 1660s reported his finding to the chief minister of King Louis XIV describing the conditions of life in India at the time. Though apparently innocuous in nature, Bernier's travel accounts must have been meant for more serious purposes of the state. It was the time when European powers were vying with each other to establish their power in India. Similar political motivation may have led the British Admiralty to send Captain Cook on three voyages to the Pacific and the Southern Oceans to chart the coast and survey New Zealand, Australia and discover island groups in the Pacific many of which later became parts of the British empire. In a tragic turn of events in the cultural contacts, Captain Cook lost his life when he tried to recover a stolen boat from the natives in Hawaii.

Mirza Sk. Ihtishamuddin, who went to England in 1765 as one of the delegates of emperor Shah Alam to plead his case for Bengal was the first educated Indian to visit Europe. Though his travel was also political in nature, the account of his travel experiences give an interesting insight into the cultural and social life in England in the mid-18th century. Coming to modern times, novelist Graham Greene's 'Journey without Maps' (1936) is based on his exploration of the land route through uncharted forest to the west coast of Africa. His account is full of adventures, with vivid description of the natives and their life. Though not stated, Green's exploration may have been commissioned by British authorities as part of their plan for colonisation of Africa. After the end of colonialism, the need 10 use travels for exploration and intelligence gathering being over and 'pilgrims progress' by the religious minded taken care of by package tours, travels by individuals to know more about the cultures of other people have come back to their original roots. In recent times travellers like Bruce Chatwin, Jan Morris, Paul Theroux, Richard Burton, William Dalrymple, Norman Lewis, Joan Didion and others have written travel books for the enjoyment of cross-cultural experiences.

Though travels and travellers have been misused in the past for pursuing ulterior motives and hidden agendas of power that were in the countries they belonged to, travel has not lost its pristine character, after all. It has turned full circle and come back to its old tradition of motiveless adventure and enjoyment of other cultures. Allowing more people to travel with minimum of formalities, making it cheaper, giving opportunity to those who want to emigrate and ensuring the development of a multi-cultural society wherever immigrants arrive legally will be the most potent means of connecting cultures as well as to build a 'global village' that is based on the principle of unity in diversity.

Post colonial theory that has equated travel with empire building now belongs to the past. The present restrictions on travel, immigration and move towards cultural integration are a throwback to the days when the world was divided on the basis of politics and ideologies. These should not be promoted in a world that has left behind the follies of the past and is now aspiring to turn over a new leaf.

Spread of religion: In the next category of cultural contacts are included visits and settlements by religious preachers in foreign countries 1o spread the messages of their religion. Though they brought different cultures to-gather in a limited wav, very little is known of the earliest enterprises of this type. Christianity and Islam have been known as the two religions that have converted people of other faiths and cultures over a long period of time covering many countries. The process continues at present though at a limited scale but it is enough 1o stir up controversy and strife from time to time. The spread of Hinduism to Indonesia in the past and large number of Buddhists in Tibet, China, Japan, Korea and countries of south east Asia was also through preachers and by monks the most famous of whom was Atish Dipankar from Bengal. The manner in which conversion took place and the impact on people of different cultures vary from religion to religion indicating the different attitudes towards cross cultural contacts by preachers of concerned religion.

Christopher Columbus, Cortes and Pizarro, all took Catholic priests with them indicating that their intention was not only to discover new land but also to convert people to Christianity because it was the state religion of Spain. In Latin America local people were ruthlessly converted and the priests approved of the brutal practices carried out by the conquistadores. In 1570 a commission headed by Archbishop Loyoza argued that since mineral mines were in the public interest, forced labour had to be tolerated. (Harman, 2005). Spread of Christianity in Latin America was sudden and rapidly carried out giving no choice to local people and involved no gentle process of persuasion. In Africa also Christianity was spread without much subtlety as the natives were looked down upon for their belief in paganism. The preachers saw their mission as one of saving the pagans from the worship of devil and the dependence on witch doctors. In their defence Graham Greene wrote: It seems to be forgotten that Christianity is a Eastern religion to which Western pagans have been successfully converted.' (Greene, 1936).

It is so simplistic in terms of explanation that one wonders if Greene made it in earnest or in jest. Spread of Christianity through missionaries in India have been much more humane and tactful. This is because in India they found people who belonged to organised religions like Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam and had developed cultures. Faced with this, the Christian missionaries opted for a policy of gentle persuasion, starting with people living at the fringe of society. By offering consolation in moments of grief and misfortune and providing material services like giving food, free health care and education they made their case for conversion more palatable and acceptable to the disadvantaged people. Of course, some enlightened persons with modern education became Christians of their own volition. But by and large, spread of Christianity in India did not take a violent and coercive pattern as in Latin America or in most of Africa.

Muslims have been accused of spreading Islam by the sword in the countries they had conquered. In the immediate aftermath of conquests of territories this may have taken place in some countries. But use of force cannot explain the history of the spread of Islam and the demographics in the countries that came under Muslim rule. In India Islamic preachers had reached the western and the eastern parts much before conquests by Muslim army. Following in the footsteps of travellers and simultaneous with merchants, Islamic preachers and saints settled in different places with their followers. Referring to Bengal one historian has written: Islam was progressing in East Bengal long before the Muslim conquests of this area. This progress was probably the work of the Arab traders or other preachers who might have entered East Bengal either through Chittagong or north Bengal. ... According to local historians some Muslim saints, mostly Arabs and Persians settled down in Bengal and preached Islam in different localities of this country in the time of Hindu Kings. ... It is difficult to ascertain the reliability of these traditions about the work of these saints in Bengal. These, however, give the idea that some of them might have come to this country before Muslim conquest.' (Rahim. 1963). Similar instances of saints preaching Islam in other countries may not be rare if this is accepted as a pattern and traditional way of preaching. The allegation that Islam was forcibly, spread is given the lie by the fact that even after Muslim conquests and their long rule in India the majority of population were Hindus. From the earliest Muslim conquests to the rule of Mughals, if Islam was preached by sword the majority of Indian would be Muslims by the time their rule was over. As regards the impact of Islam on the Indian society, its message of equality and treatment of all with respect brought changes in the social values that were so long dominated by the rigid caste system of Hinduism. In Bengal this spread of Islam by Sufi saints had the effect of reconciling existing beliefs and cultural practices with the liberal philosophy of Sufism. The Sufis, by introducing mysticism to the traditional spiritual life, paved the basis for unity in diversity in society. Like the Christians and the Muslims, the Buddhists also influenced the cultures of different people through the spread of their religion. Giving emphasis on learning scriptures and scholarly pursuits in monasteries, Buddhist monks promoted principles of simplicity and humility. As almost all people have now come to belong to religions by birth and religious communities are now well organised conversion has slowed down. Antagonism against it by religious establishments has also made it difficult to engage in prosy litization. In India, Pakistan and also in Bangladesh religious fundamentalists threaten conversion with unpleasant consequences. The heydays of spread of religion by missionaries and preachers are over because there are not many in the world waiting to be converted to new faiths. Religions in their extreme and radical forms in the hands of a few have, however, created incendiary situations threatening the world with strife and clashes. The most acute of this is the confrontation between radical Islam and fundamentalist Christianity. Though moderate Islam is the rule everywhere Muslims live in significant number, its exception in the form of political ideology has been exacerbated by the response and misunderstanding by scholars and politicians. Clash of civilisations promoted by scholars like Samuel Huntington (1996) in the West and readily accepted by political and military leaders there have pushed the world to the abyss of apocalyptic crisis. This must be replaced by inter-faith understanding and co-operation for world peace and solidarity among peoples. Removing the just grievances by followers of religion should be given importance rather than allowing them to fester with disastrous consequences. Connecting cultures through religious understanding and accommodation has never been so urgent and crucial as now. The clash of civilizations propounded by Huntington has, however, a secular dimension also as the analysis posits confrontation between the west and a rising China.

Trade and commerce: The third means of cultural contacts opened up when merchants and traders visited other countries for business purposes and sometimes set up settlements near seaports. About the early examples of this cultural interaction there is not much available by way of records. Almost simultaneous with travelers' quest of routes to new lands and sometimes even before the advent of religious preachers merchants and traders had been visiting markets in other countries to buy and sell goods. In this the Arab merchants are considered the pioneer, establishing settlements in the west coast and later in the eastern parts of India. The writings of various European authors indicate that in the sea ports of Bengal coast and in Hoogli there was an influential community of the Muslim merchants. (Das Gupta,1963). In the 8th and 9th centuries the Arabs were the foremost sea faring and maritime people of the world and Arab merchants sailed across all waters to far off countries of the East and the West. Merchants from Europe were mostly interested in the Far East and in India for trading because of the availability of different kinds of spices in abundance. The traders from Europe and China traveled along the silk route carrying silk and other goods from the East. The silk route did not see any settlement by merchants but there were trading posts at regular intervals where traders from different countries stopped for rest and exchange of information. The Portuguese, the Dutch and the British built settlements in the coastal areas of India with permission from the Mughal rulers. In addition to trading, the Portuguese became notorious for piracy along the Bengal coast. Armenians came later and had a large settlement in Dacca which came to be known as Armanitola. In Chittagong the area known as Firingi Bazaar refers to the melting of foreign merchant who set up shops their. Foreign merchants from Arabs to Armenians introduced new goods which expanded markets in different places in India significantly changing the economy. Similar developments took place in other countries where merchants went to buy and sell and in the process built settlements. By making agrarian societies business-minded, merchants in India and elsewhere in the East acted as catalytic agents for economic and social change. But trading also made the later day foreign merchants greedy and ambitious. Soon they became involved in intrigue with local chiefs and royalties, making alliances with them to establish zones of control. From this the next step of occupying territories with military force did not take long. Emerging as the most resourceful and clever the British East India Company won over political control over Bengal in 1757 which led to the occupation and control of the rest of India.

Trading has helped human civilization to progress through exchange of goods and ideas. It has also brought changes in the economic and political domain. The differences of views in trade negotiations in organisations like WTO indicate how strong are the national interests in matters of trade and commerce. It is in this area where reaching consensus has proved to be difficult holding progress of the world economy in check. It is also the area where different countries at different stages of development have become suspicious of each other. Connecting cultures through trade has the potentials of bringing people of different countries to-gather in a spirit of friendship and co-operation. Giving most-preferred-nation status to other countries, removing protective barriers should replace the corrosive Beggar-thy-neighbour policy. Trade and commerce always had seeds of greed and selfishness hidden in them and powerful countries have tried to exploit others who were not so clever as them. The results have not been in the long term interests of the people of the world. Sometimes wars have broken out engulfing the world. Who knows what will result if the same self-serving policy is followed by countries with all consuming nationalistic feelings.

Colonialism: Search for wealth by some European countries led to expeditions and exploration across the seas which paved the way for conquest of foreign territories and their exploitation. In the15th century Spain led other European countries in this respect. The need for raw materials and markets for their products made it necessary for maritime powers like Britain, France, Holland and Portugal to conquer countries with whom trading relations had been established earlier. This continued in the period of colonialism and high imperialism beginning from late 18th to mid-twentieth centuries. Cultural contacts between colonial powers and the people of colonies took the form of violence and subordination at first, becoming moderate, liberal and mutually beneficial later. Much has been written about colonial exploitation and the treatment of the colonised in ways that humiliated and marginalised them. At the centre of the colonial discourse is the issue of loss of cultural identity of the colonised as a result of deliberate policy to subjugate them through incorporation into the culture of the colonial powers. Interpretations of cultures of the colonies by westerners based on ignorance and feelings of superiority has been alleged by Edward Said (1993 and 1994) and later by Homi Bhaba (1994) and Gyatri Spivak (1988). These interpretations, given the name 'Orientalism' by Said, showed the colonised as culturally inferior. The possibility of making mistakes by western scholars in good faith without any ulterior motive or malice has been ruled out in this critique. If the colonisers were so opinionated and obsessed about the inferiority of the colonised they would not have established research bodies like the Asiatic Society in India and the School of Oriental and African Studies in London. The dichotomy between Self/Other alleged to have been perpetrated by the colonial scholars to establish the superiority of the West appears to be exaggerated. The French-Algerian ideologue Franz Fannon (1967) on the other hand wrote on the colonisation of the minds of natives in his book 'Black Skin, White Mask' which was later reiterated by the Kenyan writer NGugi (1986). They were not worried about the Euro-centric view of the colonisers but resented their attempts to transform them in their own image. Introduction of the language of the colonial powers has been cited as the most glaring example of the policy of culturally subordinating the colonised. There is no doubt that cultural contacts during the period of colonialism and high imperialism were on a large scale and for long duration changing almost all facets of life in the colonies, social economic, political and cultural. But it would be an exaggeration to say that all these changes were in the interest of the metropolitan countries only. Railway was introduced by the British in India to facilitate transfer of goods to their country and also for quick movement of troops in India but it also unified the people of India who were so long divided by distance. Similarly posts and telegraphs may have served the need of quick transmission of news about any political unrest but these helped the Indians to contact each other easily and quickly. It is true that English language was introduced for use in offices replacing Farsi. But it cannot be seen as a brazen move to disinherit the natives because Farsi was not an Indian language. Moreover, English gave the Indians opportunities to obtain higher education abroad, particularly in England which gave them firsthand experience about British and European culture. It is these foreign educated Indians who later took up the cause of Indian independence behaving very much like the fictional Caliban, a favourite character much quoted by post colonial writers. But English was not promoted at the expense of vernacular languages. The first written form of Bengali, complete with a grammar, was developed by the British. Though they had their own motive for this it paved the way for the development of Bengali language. The colonial discourse that became fashionable in the 1970s have waxed eloquent on the negative side of colonialism ignoring its valuable contributions to enriching cultures and promoting contacts between them.

The cold war period: The period from 1945 to 1991 saw cultural contacts among countries based on the principle of freedom, equality and co-operation for development which was given impetus by the rivalry between two sides in the cold war. The period after the end of colonialism and the beginning of what was called the cold war saw accelerated contacts among cultures of countries divided mainly into the two competing camps. A third group, the non-aligned countries were wooed by both sides with aid and technical co-operation. Scholarships given under technical co-operation enabled students from many countries to go for higher studies abroad facilitating cultural contacts. It was an irony that a world order based on dividing countries on the basis of ideology in fact promoted cultural contacts among peoples. The period had tensions but greater awareness about each other was also engendered. Propaganda by books, magazines, radio and later, television reached climax during this period. Media was never used more passionately as during the cold war and it became a potent medium of cultural contacts.

The United Nations established after the second world war sought to maintain peace among countries but this was almost regularly jeopardised by proxy wars fought by client countries on behalf of the two camps. The UN and its various organs sought more vigorously unite the countries of the world through their programmes for promotion of political institutions, human rights, education, cultures etc. and ensuring food security. Due to the cold war these development-oriented activities faced problems and moved at times through ups and downs. During this period several regional organisations were also formed by the two sides for security and economic co-operation which undermined the role of the UN. Even though negotiations went on for general agreement on tariff and trade, regional trade agreements were in ked by many countries. The association of the Commonwealth countries not only survived the initial suspicion and scepticism but continued to grow in strength through shared values and mutually beneficial programmes. Though its coverage is not universal the functioning of the Commonwealth has been a shining example of connecting cultures.

End of cold war and a new world order: The end of cold war with the fall of Soviet Republic initiated a period of building a new international world order based on peace and co-operation for development. In a more closely integrated global economic system countries free from the pressure of cold war could now co-operate along a wide range of subjects under the guidance of multilateral international organisations like the UN and the Bretton Woods sisters, the World Bank and the IMF. Soon after the end of the cold war the World Trade Organisation WTO) was established promising to free trade from most of the restrictions that had impeded its expansion for the benefit of all countries. As already pointed out, this has not happened because of the intransigence of countries belong into different groups to protect their own interests. This has precluded the possibility of linking the world economic system more closely for the common benefit of all countries. Nothing can give a more powerful shot in the arm of cultural contacts in the world today than a system of free trade.

Freedom of media and greater mobility of people for travel, education, trading and migration intensified cultural contacts which have been supported by rapid developments in communication information technology. Internet and social media have now brought all countries to-gather in the homes of people from the rich to the middle class. Cultural contacts among people have come a long way with varying degrees of costs and benefits borne and enjoyed by people of different countries. The end of cold war opened up immense possibilities of promoting a world order based on peace, stability and co-operation through expanded contacts among countries. But the military-industrial complex of western world had other ideas; keeping their vested interests uppermost in mind. New flashpoints were created in the name of removal of dictators through regime change and war on terror that involved occupation of foreign countries. Though Russia dismantled the Warsaw Pact allowing member countries to become independent the western powers maintained NATO to promote its policy of exercising power over other countries and to encircle Russia with missiles based in erstwhile Warsaw Pact countries. These negative developments in international politics have had adverse impact on cultural contacts among peoples, bringing back tension and conflicts of the cold war era.

An illustration of the Silk Route

The revolution in connecting cultures has been complicated by the tension created on the basis of an exaggerated and misconceived rivalry between civilisations (cultures) of the Christian west and other civilisions, mainly represented by political Islam and the rising power of China. The war on terror has almost made real the possibility of clash of civilization as predicted by Huntington, while military alliances recently, forged by America in Asia-Pacific area to counter tire rising power of China has given rise to new tension reminiscent of the cold war. Cultural contacts have been farther affected adversely by xenophobic policies of keeping out immigrants and insistence on integrating the present ones closely into the culture of the host country. Restrictions on immigration, strict control on temporary visits by foreigners have been retrogressive steps at a time when the dream of one world was about to become a reality. To quote Simon Walker, Director General of the Institute of Directors, UK: Visa rules changes are hurling our universities and global influence. The UK has always been an open trading nation... We took Britain to the world and adapted when the world started to come to Britain. But we are starting to close up, chipping away at the openness to trade, investment and travel. ... It is evident in surging flight taxes that deter visitors and hurt tourism. And perhaps, most clearly, it is discernible in our immigration policy.' (Sunday Times, 3 March 2012). The positive trends in the midst of all these depressing developments have been the steady rise in the number of students going abroad for higher education. For the first time in history higher education abroad has become accessible to all classes of young people who have the merit and ambition. Alongside knowledge-based cultural interaction, the phenomenal rise and growth of various information communication technologies like computer, internet, world wide web and social media represented by blogs, Facebook, Twitter, You Tube have made cultural contacts an everyday exercise for people of all ages. The decline of print media has been more than compensated by the exponential growth of electronic media and spread of digital technology. Governments of the world may remain bogged down in wrangling over terms of trade and other issues of geo-political importance but the people, particularly the young generation has already established solidarity with peoples across the borders using social media. They are bringing historic changes in politics; signs of progress in other areas to bring people closer are already visible. Policymakers and political leaders should support this trend for change before they are overtaken by change.

The new millennium has presented expanded opportunities through easier and cheaper travels, resulting in greater mobility of people and opened greater access to information. This to-gather with growing trade in the globalised economy haves intensified cultural contacts among peoples on a wide scale. These contacts have also brought possibilities of conflicts and clashes stemming from misunderstanding of the intents and purposes underlying religious and other ideologies. The remnants of feeling of injustice by certain groups (Palestine's), inequality of wealth among nations fuelled by ideological suspicion and mistrust can damage the prospect and possibility of grater co-operation among peoples that have been made possible by regular and spontaneous cultural contacts.

Conclusion: Conclusion of this discussion may be brief as on each of the examples of cultural contacts not only past and present status but also the prospects and possibilities for the future have been mentioned. To sum up, all the cultural contacts excepting under colonialism and those that took place during the cold war are present to-day, though in varying degrees. Their contours, reach and effectiveness have changed in keeping with changing contexts. All through history the basic reality of cultural connectivity that has emerged is that in spite of many differences mankind share some essential common characteristics and as such have the same interest in the state of the world order. That it is an equal stake for all countries was not apparent in the middle Ages and during the period of colonialism. But as mankind has progressed through the vicissitudes of history, the myth of unequal rights and asymmetrical responsibilities in shaping the world order has been left by the wayside. Threat from climate change, wars in the name of combating terror and risks inherent in starting a new arms race and the grave consequences of an exaggerated or contrived vision about clash of civilizations have brought the saner elements among international community to-gather on the same platform. Their determination to build a secure world by uniting cultures is gaining momentum supported by new information technology. In the past the journey in connecting cultures continued on the basis of trial and error. Based on experience the present endeavour should be easier. The long history of mankind in connecting cultures cannot go in vain.

The writer is a former secretary and a member of the erstwhile Civil Service of Pakistan (CSP).

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