In a groundbreaking move, Saudi Arabia has decided to terminate its long-standing petrodollar agreement with the United States. This pact, which has been a pillar of global oil markets and financial systems for fifty years, is now under reconsideration due to changing geopolitical and economic circumstances. This decision signifies a major shift from a key element of the global financial structure and is expected to have extensive repercussions.
Confronted with rising inflation, debt from the Vietnam War, excessive domestic spending, and a persistent balance of payments deficit, the Nixon administration decided in August 1971 to abruptly end the convertibility of U.S. dollars into gold. This "Nixon Shock" led to the demise of the gold standard and a sharp decline in the U.S. dollar amidst soaring inflation. Starting in 1974, through bilateral agreements with Saudi Arabia, the U.S. persuaded OPEC members to price oil in dollars. In exchange for this, Saudi Arabia and other Arab states received U.S. influence in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and U.S. military assistance during a tumultuous political period marked by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the fall of the Iranian Shah, and the Iran-Iraq War. This mutually advantageous agreement gave rise to the petrodollar system. Because oil, the world's most sought-after commodity, is priced in U.S. dollars, the petrodollar system elevated the dollar to the world's dominant currency. This status allows the U.S. to finance its current account deficit by issuing dollar-denominated assets at low interest rates and solidifying its global economic dominance. Countries like China, which hold significant U.S. debt, have expressed concerns about potential depreciation of the dollar affecting their assets. The privilege of running persistent current account deficits comes with costs. As the reserve currency issuer, the U.S. must run these deficits to provide liquidity to the global economy. If the U.S. stops running deficits, a liquidity shortage could trigger a global economic slump. However, if the deficits continue indefinitely, foreign countries might lose faith in the dollar's value, risking its status as the reserve currency-a situation known as the Triffin Dilemma. And the effects are now on the show.
The petrodollar system generates surplus U.S. dollar reserves for oil-producing countries, which need to be "recycled." These surplus dollars are spent on domestic consumption, lent abroad to developing nations, or invested in U.S. dollar-denominated assets. This recycling benefits the U.S. dollar as petrodollars flow back into the U.S., purchasing securities like Treasury bills, creating financial market liquidity, keeping interest rates low, and promoting non-inflationary growth. OPEC states avoid currency conversion risks and invest in secure U.S. assets. Recently, there have been concerns about a shift from petrodollars to other currencies. For instance, Venezuela announced in 2018 that it would begin selling its oil in yuan, euro, and other currencies. In 2019, Saudi Arabia threatened to abandon petrodollars if the U.S. pursued a bill-called NOPEC-that would allow antitrust action against OPEC for price manipulation. The evolving global energy market could effectively end the U.S.-Saudi petrodollar agreement. Meanwhile, the U.S. has become a major energy exporter for the first time since the 1960s. This, coupled with a robust domestic energy sector focused on exports, could facilitate a smooth transition away from the petrodollar system. Energy exports could replace the capital inflows from Saudi purchases of U.S. assets, maintaining global demand for the U.S. dollar. This transition would ensure U.S. domestic energy security, the original purpose of the petrodollar agreement. However, the gradual reduction of recycled petrodollars could decrease liquidity in American capital markets, leading to higher borrowing costs (due to increased interest rates) for governments, companies, and consumers as money sources become scarcer.
Under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman's Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia aims to diversify its economy beyond oil dependence. This strategy includes reducing its economic reliance on the U.S. dollar and engaging with a wider range of global economic partners. As the global political landscape becomes more multipolar, Saudi Arabia is building stronger ties with other major economies like China and Russia, which are interested in conducting oil transactions in their currencies. The emergence of the U.S. as a major oil producer has reduced its reliance on Middle Eastern oil, leading Saudi Arabia to reassess the benefits of the petrodollar system. By moving away from the petrodollar, Saudi Arabia aims to gain more control over its economic future and lessen its exposure to U.S. economic sanctions and policy changes. Saudi Arabia has joined Project mBridge, a collaborative initiative exploring a digital currency platform shared among central and commercial banks. This project aims to enable instant cross-border payments and foreign-exchange transactions using distributed ledger technology. Launched in 2021, Project mBridge involves several major central banks and institutions worldwide and has recently reached the Minimum Viable Product (MVP) stage, inviting private-sector firms to propose innovations and use cases for further development of the platform.
But there is more to be observed.
This arrangement, where oil transactions are primarily conducted in U.S. dollars, has significant implications for global economic stability, international relations, and the balance of power. Since this system has not been renewed, it could trigger profound shifts across multiple dimensions. This analysis explores the potential implications in detail.
The petrodollar system has entrenched the US dollar as the world's primary reserve currency. If oil transactions shift to other currencies, the global demand for dollars could decrease significantly. This would reduce the liquidity and stability of the U.S. dollar, potentially leading to a depreciation of its value. A decrease in dollar demand could lead to higher inflation in the United States. To combat inflation, the Federal Reserve might need to increase interest rates, which could slow down economic growth. Higher interest rates would increase the cost of borrowing, impacting everything from consumer loans to business investments. The stability of global markets is closely linked to the stability of the U.S. dollar. A significant depreciation of the dollar could lead to volatility in global financial markets. Emerging markets, which hold substantial dollar-denominated debt, might face severe economic challenges, including increased debt servicing costs and potential defaults.
The dominance of the US dollar has provided the United States with substantial geopolitical leverage. The non-renewal of the petrodollar system could erode this leverage, leading to a more multipolar world where other currencies like the Euro, Yuan, or even crypto-currencies could play more prominent roles. Countries may seek new alliances and partnerships to stabilise their economies and ensure favourable trade conditions. For instance, China and Russia, which have been advocating for a move away from dollar dominance, might strengthen their economic and political ties with oil-producing countries. The U.S.-Saudi relationship, underpinned by the petrodollar system, could be significantly affected. Without the petrodollar agreement, the strategic partnership may weaken, altering the balance of power in the Middle East and potentially leading to greater instability in the region.
The pricing of oil in alternative currencies could create volatility in the oil markets. Oil-producing countries might choose to price oil in their own currencies or in a basket of currencies to hedge against the risks associated with the U.S. dollar. Countries that heavily import oil, such as those in the European Union and Asia, may benefit from the ability to pay in their own currencies, reducing exchange rate risk and potentially improving trade balances. Investment patterns in oil infrastructure might shift. Countries may seek to develop more localised trading hubs, reducing reliance on traditional dollar-denominated trade routes and financial systems.
The forex market would likely experience increased volatility as traders and institutions adjust to new realities. Currencies of major oil-producing countries might appreciate, while the dollar could face downward pressure. Banks that have significant exposure to dollar-denominated assets might face increased risk. Financial institutions would need to adapt their strategies to manage currency risk more effectively, possibly leading to a reconfiguration of global banking networks. Investors may need to reassess their portfolios, diversifying away from dollar-denominated assets. This could lead to increased investment in commodities, real estate, and other currencies, altering global investment patterns.
Many emerging economies hold substantial dollar-denominated debt. A weaker dollar could make debt servicing more manageable in the short term but could also lead to increased borrowing costs if global financial conditions tighten. Emerging markets might explore alternatives to the dollar for international trade and reserve holdings. This could include regional currencies or digital currencies, which could alter the global economic landscape. Countries may seek to enhance their economic sovereignty by reducing dependence on the dollar. This could involve developing more robust domestic financial markets and enhancing regional economic cooperation.
The potential instability in oil markets might accelerate investment in renewable energy. Countries could see the non-renewal of the petrodollar system as an impetus to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and invest in sustainable energy sources. Governments might leverage this shift to implement more aggressive environmental policies. Reducing dependence on oil not only aligns with global climate goals but also diminishes the geopolitical risks associated with oil dependency. The drive towards energy independence could spur technological innovation in energy storage, grid management, and alternative energy sources. This innovation could create new economic opportunities and reduce the geopolitical significance of oil.
The shift away from the petrodollar system might bolster the adoption of crypto-currencies and digital currencies. These technologies offer alternatives to traditional financial systems and could provide new ways to conduct international trade and finance. Countries might accelerate the development and implementation of CBDCs to facilitate international trade and reduce reliance on the dollar. CBDCs could offer greater control over monetary policy and enhance financial inclusion. The disruption of traditional financial systems might spur innovation in fintech and digital finance. New financial products and services could emerge, offering greater efficiency and transparency in global trade.
The non-renewal of the petrodollar system would have far-reaching implications for the global economy, international relations, and financial markets. While it poses significant challenges, it also offers opportunities for innovation, diversification, and the development of a more multipolar global economic system. Policymakers, businesses, and investors would need to navigate this transition carefully to mitigate risks and capitalise on emerging opportunities. The world could witness a profound transformation, reshaping the economic and geopolitical landscape for decades to come.
Syed Raiyan Amir is a senior Research Associate, The KRF Center for Bangladesh and Global Affairs (CBGA).
© 2024 - All Rights with The Financial Express
